
The modern world is generally considered to have begun in the late 15th century when Europe emerged from its Dark Ages, freed itself from ignorance and superstitious rituals, and embarked on scientific and intellectual progress—largely inspired by Islamic civilization. Scientific and medical works written in Arabic were translated, and Gutenberg’s printing press was invented, significantly aiding the spread of knowledge and literacy. This was Europe’s Renaissance. Unfortunately, it also marked the beginning of the decline of Islamic society.
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The 19th century can also be considered the true beginning of the modern era, as it was when the West underwent a passionate scientific and industrial revolution. This revolution brought about economic, technological, and social transformation, enriching the West with immense intellectual wealth. Sadly, Islamic societies distanced themselves from this progress, leading to their eventual decline. This isolation plunged Muslim communities into social, political, and economic crises. Stagnation and aversion to knowledge severely weakened Islamic civilization. Scholars have identified several key reasons for this decline, including:
- European powers controlling see trade routes, weakening Islamic trade centers.
- The closure of the doors of Ijtihad (independent reasoning) and strict adherence to traditional interpretations.
- Failure to modernize military forces.
- Lack of communication between Islamic societies and the developing world.
- Sectarian extremism and intense internal conflicts.
- Decline in scientific activity, resistance to new ideas, and reliance solely on past achievements.
- Over-reliance on oil resources while neglecting broader economic development.
- Challenges posed by British and French colonial rule over vast Muslim-majority regions, and India a country with Hindus in Majority and Muslims in sizeable minority
- Decline of educational institutions, with an emphasis on rote memorization instead of critical thinking.
- Fierce opposition to the use of the printing press in the late 15th century—Sultan Bayezid II declared it “forbidden” in 1485—resulting in limited access to modern knowledge and ideas.
- Ijtihad was deemed unnecessary.
- Some Islamic countries became overly dependent on petroleum while ignoring economic development.
However, during this period, some reformers made valuable efforts to reconcile Islamic values with modern challenges. They attempted to counteract decline by engaging with contemporary realities while staying true to Islamic teachings. One of the earliest pioneers of reform was Shah Waliullah Dehlavi (1703–1762), a prominent Islamic scholar and reformer from the Indian subcontinent. He advocated the renewal of Islamic teachings based on the Quran and Hadith, translated the Quran into Persian for wider accessibility, and called for social and political reforms to unite Muslims and resist colonial influences. He also emphasized the importance of interfaith relations.
Following Shah Waliullah Dehlavi, numerous reform movements emerged across the Muslim world in the 19th century. Reformers sought to harmonize Islamic teachings with modern knowledge and social realities. Below, we provide a brief overview of some of the most significant reformers of this era:
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1. Jamal al-Din al-Afghani (1839–1897)
A highly influential figure who advocated for Islamic unity and resistance against Western imperialism. He emphasized the importance of education and modern science, striving to liberate Muslim nations from Western control. His goal was to unite Muslim countries under a single Caliphate, a vision known as Pan-Islamism.
2. Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (1817–1898)
A prominent Indian reformer and founder of the Aligarh Movement, which aimed to modernize Muslim education and society in India. He promoted Western-style education while preserving Islamic values and established Aligarh Muslim University (AMU), one of the most esteemed educational institutions in the Muslim world. A passionate advocate of science and rational thought, he believed that the only way for Muslims to rise from their decline was to embrace scientific advancements and English education. He also worked for Hindu-Muslim unity, famously stating that Hindus and Muslims were the “two eyes of India.”
3. Maulana Muhammad Qasim Nanotavi (1833–1880, India)
One of the founders of Darul Uloom Deoband, an institution aimed at preserving Islamic religious education while adapting to modern challenges. He became a symbol of resistance against British colonial rule and undertook significant reformist efforts to uphold Islamic beliefs and identity. He was a distinguished scholar of Hadith and a great freedom fighter.
4. Rifa’a al-Tahtawi (1801–1873, Egypt)
An Egyptian scholar and writer who promoted the study of Western sciences and languages while emphasizing the importance of Islamic traditions. He was a strong advocate of educational and cultural reforms in Egypt, introducing modern governance and educational concepts while maintaining Islamic values.
5. Ismail Pasha (1830–1895, Egypt)
A scholar and ruler of Egypt who played a key role in modernizing Egypt’s economy, military, and education. He emphasized European-style modernization while preserving Islamic identity.
6. Haji Imdadullah Muhajir Makki (1817–1899, India)
An Indian scholar who provided spiritual guidance, taught Tafsir, Hadith, and Fiqh, and was an active participant in India’s freedom struggle.
7. Abdul Rahman al-Kawakibi (1854–1902, Syria)
A Syrian writer and thinker who criticized the political and social conditions of the Ottoman Empire and advocated for democratic reforms. He was known for his struggle against dictatorship and his calls for political liberty.
8. Maulana Rasheed Ahmad Gangohi (1829–1905, India)
A key figure in Islamic scholarship and reform movements in the Indian subcontinent. He sought to reconcile Sufism and Islamic law and became a central pillar of the Deoband school of thought. He was also a freedom fighter, a scholar of Hadith and Fiqh, and a patron of Darul Uloom Deoband.
9. Sheikh Muhammad Abduh (1849–1905, Egypt)
A renowned Egyptian Muslim scholar, jurist, Grand Mufti, and reformer. A student of Jamal al-Din al-Afghani, he is considered a pioneering modernist thinker in Islamic reform. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, he played a crucial role in Islamic intellectual revival in Egypt. He was known as an educator, interfaith scholar, and reformer, often compared to Imam Ghazali in his intellectual influence. He spent significant time in Egypt, Ottoman territories (especially Lebanon), and France.
10. Prince Diponegoro (1785–1855, Indonesia)
A key leader in the Java War (1825–1830) against Dutch colonial rule. He was also a religious figure who sought to resist Dutch colonialism through Islamic revivalism.
11. Khayr al-Din al-Tunisi (1822–1890) Tunisia
A statesman and reformer who argued that political and administrative reforms were essential for Muslim societies to compete with European powers.
12. Muhammad Alexander Russell (late 19th century, Britain)
A British convert to Islam who lectured on Islam across Europe and engaged in intellectual debates.
13. Muhammad al-Sanusi (1787–1859) Libya
Founder of the Sanusiyya movement, he promoted Islamic principles in North Africa.
14. Raja Ali (1808–1873, Malaysia)
A Malaysian scholar and historian who significantly contributed to the development of Islamic jurisprudence and promoted rational thinking in governance and society.
15. Ahmed Pasha (1822–1895, Ottoman Empire)
An Ottoman leader and historian who played a crucial role in legal reforms by integrating it with Western legal principles.
16. Munshi Abdullah (1796–1854), Malaysia
Considered the father of modern Malay literature, he introduced critical thinking and reformist ideas in education, governance, and religion through his writings.
17. Namik Kemal (1840–1888) Ottoman Empire
A distinguished scholar and journalist, he was a key figure in the Ottoman reform movement, advocating for constitutional governance, freedom, and modernization within Islamic society.
By Dr. M.I.H. Farooqi (Dr. Mohammed Iqtedar Husain Farooqi)
Deputy Director (Retrd), National Botanical Research Institute (Govt. of India), Lucknow
